Release monitoring and detection of formulated solid nanoparticle–conjugated nicotine in blood and urine using electrochemical technique

Abstract

Tobacco (nicotine) has been reported as one of the worst global public health pandemics in history, claiming about 8 million lives annually. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), nicotine accounts for about 7 million deaths of firsthand users and over 1.3 million morbidities of secondhand users. Furthermore, smokeless tobacco products have been linked to more than 300 million morbidities, including chronic kidney illnesses. On the basis of this trend, a possible increase of over 100% in mortality rate and a state of emergency have been predicted from now till 2050. However, electrochemical analysis has demonstrated cost-effective and easily synthesised sensors as a timely alternative for the rapid analysis and quantification of nicotine in diverse products. A carbon-based silver sensor was fabricated and characterised by energy-dispersive x-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), direct light scattering (DLS), and x-ray diffraction (XRD). Herein, we report the first electrochemical detection, release monitoring and quantification of conjugated nicotine. The sensor showed a significant sensitivity, specificity and discriminating power with a detection and quantification limit of 2.283 × 10−9 and 0.761 × 10−8 M, respectively. An average recovery rate of 96.26% was recorded. The applicability of the modified electrode was examined in human urine and serum. The research showed the potential of this method for monitoring doping and nicotine release, as well as for diagnostic and quality control purposes.